Colorado Springs History and Facts

Colorado Springs, Colorado:

The City of Colorado Springs is the second most populous city in the State of Colorado and the 49th most populous city in the United States. The city is the county seat of El Paso County. Colorado Springs is located just east of the geographic center of the state and 63 miles (101 kilometers) south of the Colorado State Capitol in Denver. At an elevation of 6035 feet (1839 meters), Colorado Springs is well over one mile above sea level, though some areas of the city are significantly higher. The city is situated near the base of one of the most famous American mountains, Pikes Peak, at the eastern edge of the Southern Rocky Mountains.

The United States Census Bureau estimates that in 2005 the population of the City of Colorado Springs was 369,815 (49th most populous U.S. city), the population of the Colorado Springs Metropolitan Statistical Area was 587,500 (84th most populous MSA), and the population of the Front Range Urban Corridor was 4,013,055.

Today, Colorado Springs has many features of a modern urban area, such as parks, bike trails, urban open-area spaces, business and commerce, theatres and other entertainment. It was first established as a posh resort community and the tourist industry has remained strong and offers many activities and attractions. In July 2006, Money magazine ranked Colorado Springs the best place to live in the big city category, which includes cities with 300,000 or more people.

Colorado Springs also is not exempt from the problems that typically plague cities that experience tremendous growth: overcrowded roads and highways, crime, sprawl, and government budget issues. Many of the problems are indirectly or directly caused by the city's difficulty in coping with the large population growth experienced in the last 20 years and the annexing of the Banning Lewis Ranch area for 175,000 future residents. In 2004, the voters of Colorado Springs and El Paso County established the Pikes Peak Rural Transportation Authority and adopted a 1% sales tax dedicated to improving the region's transportation infrastructure. Together with state funding for COSMIX (2007 completion) and the I-25 interchange with Highway 16 (2008 completion), significant progress has been made since 2003 in addressing the transportation needs of the area.

A large number of religious organizations and churches make their headquarters here, particularly evangelical Christians. Several high-tech businesses have resided in the city, including a number of computer chip manufacturers (e.g. Intel, and the legendary chip foundary INMOS). The Mountain West Conference has its administrative headquarters in Colorado Springs.

Colorado Springs is also home to a large number of military installations and important national defense agencies. It is also home to the United States Air Force Academy, one of only five military academies in the entire country.

History

General William Palmer, City Founder

Colorado Springs was founded in August 1871 by General William Palmer, with the intention of creating a high quality resort community, and was soon nicknamed "Little London" because of the many English tourists who came. Nearby Pikes Peak and the Garden of the Gods made the city's location a natural.

Within two years his flagship resort the Antlers Hotel opened, welcoming U.S. and international travelers as well as health-seekers looking for the high altitude and dry climate, and Palmer's visions of a thriving, quality resort town were coming true. Soon after he founded and owned the Denver & Rio Grande Railroad, a critical regional railroad. Afterwards he maintained his presence in the city's early days by making many grants or sales of land to many important civic institutions in the community. Palmer and his wife saw Colorado Springs develop into one of the most popular travel destinations in the late 1800's United States.

The town of Palmer Lake and a geographic feature called the Palmer Divide (and other more minor features) are named after him, and a bronze sculpture of Palmer on a horse with one leg raised (denoting seriously being wounded in a battle that later in life caused death), is prominently displayed downtown in the center of a busy intersection.

America the Beautiful was written by visiting English professor Katharine Lee Bates in August 1893, while she stayed at the Antlers Hotel after visiting the top of nearby Pikes Peak.

Old Colorado City and the Pike's Peak Gold Rush

In its earliest days of 1859-1860, Colorado City was a major supply route of supplies for miners in the South Park, where a major strike in the Pike's Peak Gold Rush was found. Routes further north from present-day Denver's area proved more effective, and as only a few very minor gold finds were made in the Pikes Peak region, commerce instead shifted towards serving the agriculture of Colorado's eastern plains. (Eventually General Palmer's Denver & Rio Grande Railroad would snake from Denver into the South Park.)

Colorado City was the county seat of El Paso County until 1873, when the courthouse moved to Colorado Springs.

Colorado City also briefly (and unofficially) served as Colorado's territorial capital starting on July 7, 1862. By this time the town's fortunes were already waning. The territorial legislature met in a log cabin, that still stands on Colorado Avenue, and on August 14, 1862 the legislature approved an act which named Golden as the territorial capital. Colorado City was never recognized by the Federal government as the territorial capital.

In 1891, major gold strikes were made in Cripple Creek and Victor, on the other side of Pike's Peak from Colorado City, and suddenly supplies were needed for this last major phase of the Colorado Gold Rush and the town's big boom was on. Eventually Colorado City was processing much of the gold ore at the Golden Cycle Mill using Palmer's railroads.

W. S. Stratton, early benefactor

After he made his fortune he declined to build a mansion as the other gold rush millionaires were doing; instead, in later years, he lived in a house in Colorado Springs he had built when he was a carpenter in pre-gold days.

In Colorado Springs, he funded the Myron Stratton Home for housing itinerant children and the elderly, donated land for City Hall, the Post Office, the Courthouse (which now houses the Pioneer Museum), and a park; he also greatly expanded the city's trolley car system and built the Mining Exchange building, and gave to all three communities in many other ways, great and small.

Unfortunately, as Stratton's generosity became known, he also was approached by many people looking for money, and he became reclusive and eccentric in his later years.

Spencer Penrose, early benefactor

Spencer Penrose also made his mark on Colorado Springs in its early years—though not until two decades after its founding. Penrose started as a ladies-man and an adventurer who made a huge fortune in the gold fields of nearby Cripple Creek in the 1890s, then married Julie Villiers Lewis McMillan, and settled down considerably.

Penrose used his vast amounts of money to invest in other national mineral concerns and financed construction of the Broadmoor Hotel, the Cheyenne Mountain Zoo, the Will Rogers Shrine of the Sun, the Pikes Peak Highway, an important local hospital, and established the El Pomar Foundation, which still oversees many of his contributions in Colorado Springs today.

The End of the Colorado Gold Rush and the Start of Health Tourism

The flow of gold and silver ebbed as the decades passed, and Colorado City's economic fortunes faded with it; the miners and those who processed the ore left or retired. Because of the healthy natural scenic beauty, mineral waters, and extreme dry climate, Colorado Springs became a tourist attraction and popular recuperation destination for tuberculosis patients. The healthy waters in Colorado Springs contained so much natural fluoride, that some people’s teeth developed Colorado Stain. In 1909, Dr. Frederick McKay of Colorado Springs discovered the Colorado Stain connection and that a little fluoride added to water would prevent cavities. During this time, the city of Roswell was annexed and in 1917, Colorado Springs absorbed Colorado City and is now called "Old Colorado City.” This area still retains its quaint old Victorian and brick neighborhood in the west part of Colorado Springs, with National Historic District status and a bustling main street of businesses, tourism, antique shops, and Victorian charm.

Latter 20th century military boom

The Army then began expanding Camp Carson, a venture that increased growth in Colorado Springs and provided a significant area of industry for the city. After World War II the military stepped away from the Springs and it seemed the city's military boom was over, Camp Carson was declining and the military was activating and deactivating Peterson Field irregularly. That all changed when the Korean War erupted and the declining Camp Carson of 600 was revitalized, along with many other parts of the Springs. In 1951, Ent Air Force Base (named for Major General Uzal Girard Ent, commander of the Ninth Air Force during World War II) was opened when the United States Air Defense Command moved to Colorado Springs.

After the Korean War, Peterson Field was renamed Peterson Air Force Base and was permanently activated. In 1954 Camp Carson became Fort Carson, Colorado Spring's first Army post. Later that same year, President Dwight D. Eisenhower chose, out of 300 other sites around the nation, Colorado Springs to be the site of the Air Force's military academy. With a new and growing Army post, an Air Force Base, and the Air Force's military academy, Colorado Springs' growth was jump-started.

The military boom continued and in 1963, NORAD's main facility was built in Cheyenne Mountain. It placed NORAD directly next to Colorado Springs and permanently secured the city's military presence. During the Cold War the city greatly expanded due to increased revenue from various industries and the prevailing military presence in the city. In the mid 1970s, Ent Air Force Base was shut down and later converted into the United States Olympic Training Center. Military presence was further increased in 1983 with the founding of Schriever Air Force Base, a base primarily tasked with missile defense and satellite control. Fort Carson and Peterson are still growing and continue to contribute to the city's growth. Headquarters, Air Force Space Command, is located on Peterson AFB.

Geography and climate

Geography

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 482.1 km² (186.1 mi²). 481.1 km² (185.7 mi²) of it is land and 1.0 km² (0.4 mi²) of it (0.21%) is water.

Climate

Colorado Springs averages 250 days of sunshine per year, and receives 15.42 inches of annual precipitation. Average snowfall for the area (included in the previous annual precipitation calculation) is 5.5" in November, 5.7" in December, 5.0" in January, 5.1" in February, 9.4" in March, and 6.3" in April. Due to unusually low precipitation for the past few years before 2006, Colorado Springs has had to enact lawn water restrictions. Average January low and high temperatures are 14°F/ 42°F (-10°C/ 5.5°C) and average July low and high temperatures are 55°F/ 85°F (12.7°C/ 29.4°C). Colorado Springs has relatively mild winters, with large snow accumulations in the downtown area relatively rare, a strong warming sun due to the altitude, and only occasional episodic periods of sub-zero cold snaps and blizzards from October 31 to March/April. The hottest temperature ever recorded in Colorado Springs was 101°F (38.3°C) on June 7, 1874 and the coldest temperature ever recorded was -32°F (-35.5°C) on January 20, 1883. Colorado Springs is also one of the most active lightning strike areas in the United States. This natural phenomenon led Nicola Tesla to select Colorado Springs as the preferred location to build his lab and study electricity.

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there were 360,890 people, 141,516 households, and 93,117 families residing in the city. The population density was 750.2/km² (1,942.9/mi²). There were 148,690 housing units at an average density of 309.1/km² (800.5/mi²). The racial makeup of the city was 80.66% White, 6.56% African American, 0.88% Native American, 2.82% Asian, 0.21% Pacific Islander, 5.01% from other races, and 3.85% from two or more races. 12.01% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

There were 141,516 households out of which 34.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.5% were married couples living together, 10.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.2% were non-families. 27.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 6.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.50 and the average family size was 3.06.

In the city the population was spread out with 26.5% under the age of 18, 10.3% from 18 to 24, 32.8% from 25 to 44, 20.8% from 45 to 64, and 9.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females there were 97.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.2 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $45,081, and the median income for a family was $53,478. Males had a median income of $36,786 versus $26,427 for females. The per capita income for the city was $22,496. About 6.1% of families and 8.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.8% of those under age 18 and 7.2% of those age 65 or over.

Attractions and entertainment

Tourism and attractions

• Academy Riding Stables
• American Numismatic Association
• The Broadmoor Hotel, a luxury hotel/resort rated Five-Star by Mobil and Five-Diamond by AAA, every year.
• Buckskin Joe Frontier Town and Railway
• The Cliff House at Pikes Peak , a boutique luxury hotel located 10 minutes west of downtown.
• Cave of the Winds
• The Cheyenne Mountain Zoo, billed as the nation's only 'mountain zoo,' is situated, essentially, on the side of Cheyenne Mountain.
• The Citadel Mall
Colorado Springs Fine Arts Center
• Flying W Ranch , a cowboy ranch.
• Focus on the Family visitor center and tours of facilities
• Garden of the Gods , a collection of large red sandstone formations
• Glen Eyrie , home to William Jackson Palmer, the founder of Colorado Springs, now owned by The Navigators - tours available
• Lon Chaney Theater
• Pike's Peak Cog Railway - ascends to the summit of 14,115 foot tall Pikes Peak  
• Manitou Cliff Dwellings
• Michelle's , a 50+ year old ice cream parlor featured in Life Magazine
• Old Colorado City district
• Pikes Peak Center
• Pikes Peak Library District
• Pioneer's Museum
• ProRodeo Hall of Fame and Museum of the American Cowboy
• Security Service Field , home of the baseball club Colorado Springs Sky Sox, AAA affiliate of the Colorado Rockies
• Seven Falls
• United States Air Force Academy
• United States Olympic Training Center
• The Van Briggle Pottery, founded in 1899 and still operating, specializing in art nouveau vases and decorative tiles.
• The World Arena
• Theatreworks
• Bristol Brewing Company , an award-winning Microbrewery -- tastings and tours available

According to the Colorado Springs Convention & Visitors Bureau, the area attracts some six million visitors yearly.

Orchestras

• Colorado Springs Philharmonic
• Colorado Springs Youth Symphony
• Pikes Peak Philharmonic
• Chamber Orchestra of the Springs

Choirs

• Colorado Springs Chorale
• Colorado Springs Children's Chorale

Transportation

Colorado Springs is served by an extensive bus system called Metro (short for Mountain Metropolitan Transit). The system serves most of the city and its nearest suburbs. Taxicabs are available by phone or can usually be chartered at the airport or downtown.

Air travel

Colorado Springs is served by the Colorado Springs Municipal Airport. It is the second largest airport in the state of Colorado in terms of passenger traffic (Denver International Airport is larger). The airport has experienced a higher recovery rate in the post-9/11 era than the rest of the country and is in the process of expanding its maintenance facilities, taxiways, and runways to accommodate future growth. In 2005 it served approximately two million passengers.

Sports teams

• The local colleges feature many sports teams. Notable among them are the following nationally-competitive NCAA Division I teams: United States Air Force Academy (Fighting Falcons) Football, Basketball and Hockey, Colorado College (Tigers) Hockey, and Women's Soccer.

• Colorado Springs hosted the 1962 International Ice Hockey Federation World Championships (together with Denver).

This nullifies a popular Canadian claim that the 2008 IIHF World Championships in Quebec City, PQ and Halifax, NS will mark the first time this event is organized on the American continent.

Economy

Colorado Springs' economy is driven primarily by the military, the high-tech industry, and tourism, in that order. While the main force behind the city's economy is the military, the city is not completely dependent on it. The city is currently experiencing some growth mainly in the service sectors and has been identified as one of the nation's top ten fastest growing economies.

On January 17, 2007. Steve Fehl, an Analyst at the Pikes Peak Workforce Center announced that many of the better jobs being created in Colorado Springs (CS) are for service positions in the upscale insurance, support, and financial call centers. These large businesses find the quality and quantity of available college educated workers an incentive to locate in CS. Mr. Fehl also believes CS still remains a difficult market for job seekers outside the defense sector. With future growth in the defense sector expected when the approved funding is released to defense contractors, creating employment for those with active security clearances. This growth should offset some of the recent softening in information technology and complex electronic equipment manufacturing sectors.

Defense industry

The defense industry is a significant portion of Colorado Springs' economy with several of the largest employers coming from this sector. A large segment of this industry is dedicated to the development and operation of various projects of the missile defense agency. The aerospace industry also has had an influence on the Colorado Springs economy. The defense sector has planned several changes, moving in and out personnel, building and shutting down, over the next few years. Still, they are among the largest employers in the city and the overall trend is some growth.

Significant defense corporations in the city include:

• Northrop Grumman
• Lockheed Martin
• ITT
• L-3 Communications

High-tech industry

A large percentage of Colorado Springs' economy is still based on high tech and manufacturing complex electronic equipment. The high tech sector of Colorado Springs area has decreased its overall presence in the Springs' economy over the past six years (from around 21,000 down to around 8,000), notably in information technology and complex electronic equipment. (2006-2007 Southern Colorado Economic Forum Publication pg 18) Due to the slowdown in tourism, the high tech sector now ranks second to the military in terms of total revenue generated and employment.  It is projected by the trend that the high tech employment ratio will continue to decrease in the near future. Besides the high tech sector, there are also several research and development firms located in Colorado Springs.

Because of Colorado Springs’ central U.S. location, available surplus of highly educated workers, and business friendly climate; several companies have plans to either expand their current operations in Colorado Springs or have considered Colorado Springs as a competitive area for relocating or opening a business.

High tech corporations with connections to the city include:

• Verizon – Software development - Formerly WorldCom and MCI, has a fairly large engineering presence
• Hewlett-Packard – Computing – large sales, support, and SAN storage engineering center. The location was built by Digital Equipment Corporation, renamed Compaq in the 1998 acquisition of Digital, and finally renamed Hewlett-Packard after the 2002 merger.
• SNIA – Computing - home of the SNIA Technology Center
• Agilent – Manufacturing - HP operated a larger facility in the area that was later renamed Agilent in a spinoff.
• Intel – Chip fabrication, built in 2000. Intel has put this facility up for sale, and plans to leave Colorado Springs. Local economist believes a loss up to 4,154 jobs possible if facility is not sold and shut down.
• Atmel – Chip fabrication. Formerly Honeywell
• Cypress Semiconductor Colorado Design Center – Chip fabrication R&D site

Olympic Sports

Colorado Springs is home to the United States Olympic Training Center and the headquarters of the United States Olympic Committee. In addition, a number of United States national federations for individual Olympic sports have their headquarters in Colorado Springs, including:

• United States Fencing Association
• United States Figure Skating Association
• USA Basketball
• USA Cycling
• USA Hockey
• USA Swimming

The city has a particularly long association with the sport of figure skating, having hosted the U.S. Figure Skating Championships 6 times and the World Figure Skating Championships 5 times. It is home to the World Figure Skating Museum and Hall of Fame and the Broadmoor Skating Club, a notable training center for the sport. In recent years, the World Arena has hosted skating events such as Skate America and the Four Continents Figure Skating Championships.

Military (Please visit our Military Installations page for links to the installations.)

The United States Military plays a very important role in the city. Colorado Springs is home to both Army and Air Force bases and their numerous support bases around the county. Fort Carson, the city's biggest military base, was home to the 3rd ACR and will be home to 4th Infantry, boosting the city's population. The city is host to many various training grounds for infantry, armor, and attack helicopters (specifically the AH-64 Apache). Fort Carson is also the headquarters of the 10th Special Forces Group's second and third battalion, two of the three battalions of the 10th.

The Air Force has a few critical aspects of their service based at Colorado Springs which carry on missile defense operations and development. The Air Force bases a large section of the nation's national missile defense operations, with many parts such as NORAD and Peterson set to operate large sections of the program. Peterson AFB is currently the headquarters of the Air Force's major command Air Force Space Command, the highest level of command in the Air Force. Schriever AFB is the location of the global positioning system (GPS) master control station and GPS Operations Center and the US Naval Observatory Alternate Master Clock used to synchronize GPS satellite time. Schriever is also devolping parts of national missile defense and runs parts of the annual wargames used by the nations military.

NORAD

Colorado Springs is the site of the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), a component of America's missile defense system. When it was built, at the height of the Cold War era, it caused much anxiety for the residents of Colorado Springs. NORAD still operates. Today it is primarily tasked with the tracking of ICBMs, but the military has recently decided to put Cheyenne Mountain's NORAD/NORTHCOM operations on standby and move operations to nearby Peterson Air Force Base.

Military installations in and around the city include:

• United States Air Force Academy – Tasked primarily with training Air Force officers.
• Cheyenne Mountain Air Station – Air Force: a major military center, home of NORAD (North American Aerospace Defense Command), it is housed in Cheyenne Mountain, south of Pikes Peak.
• Peterson Air Force Base – Headquarters of Air Force Space Command and United States Northern Command
• Schriever Air Force Base – Air Force
• Fort Carson – Army

Religious institutions

In recent years, Colorado Springs has attracted a large influx of Evangelical Christians and organizations. At one time Colorado Springs was counted to be the national headquarters for 81 different religious organizations, earning the city the tongue-in-cheek nickname "the Protestant Vatican". According to the 2006 DEX phonebook, there are 84 separate categories under "churches" with hundreds of individual churches listed.

The city and surrounding areas also host hundreds of churches and synagogues of many faiths and denominations, including a mosque.

Evangelical groups with headquarters at Colorado Springs include:

• Compassion International
• Focus on the Family (picture right) 
• International Bible Society
• Association of Christian Schools International
• The Navigators
• Young Life
• The Christian and Missionary Alliance
• National Association of Evangelicals

Education

Universities, colleges and special schools include:

• The Colorado College, founded in 1874 (picture to right) 
• The Colorado School for the Deaf and the Blind, also founded in 1874
• The United States Air Force Academy, established upon its present site in 1958
• The University of Colorado at Colorado Springs (UCCS), established upon its present Cragmor grounds in 1965
• Pikes Peak Community College
• Nazarene Bible College
• Remington College , vocational training.
• Colorado Technical University , established in 1965
• Colorado State University - Pueblo , Citadel Campus
• DeVry University , established in 1931

Colorado Springs City Government

Organizational Chart of Colorado Springs City Government

Colorado Springs in fiction

• Clive Cussler sets a chapter of his thriller "Cyclops" in Colorado Springs, featuring an action scene between the President's personal investigator and a man supposedly involved in a top secret colony on the moon.
• Robert A. Heinlein , noted sci-fi writer during the genre's Golden Age, lived in Colorado Springs during part of his career. His novel The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress featured at one point the rebel moon government raining rock-filled grain canisters down on NORAD's headquarters inside Cheyenne Mountain, incidentally destroying Colorado Springs because of the great amount of kinetic energy released on impact.
• Peanuts creator Charles M. Schulz lived briefly in Colorado Springs in 1951, on North Franklin Street. Linus and Lucy Van Pelt were neighbors of his, for whom he named characters. He painted a wall of his home with some Peanuts characters. The wall was removed from the home in 2001 and donated to the Charles M. Schulz Museum in Santa Rosa, California.
• Several scenes of Perry Mason: The Case of the Sinister Spirit (1987) were filmed at the Broadmoor Hotel. Several courtroom scenes in the Perry Mason movie series were filmed in the courtroom exhibit at the Pioneer's Museum (formerly the El Paso County Courthouse).
• The Incident(1990) movie was filmed in the courtroom exhibit at the Pioneer's Museum (formerly the El Paso County Courthouse).
• Strangeland (1998) filmed in Colorado Springs.
• Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman , an Emmy Award-winning dramatic television series starring Jane Seymour, was set in this town. Though there was some historical accuracy, the majority of the events and settings were fictional, and actual filming was done at the Paramount Ranch near Agoura Hills, California.
• The TV seriesStargate SG-1 has several episodes which at least partially take place in Colorado Springs; additionally SGC is based out of nearby Cheyenne Mountain, and most of the team members are shown to reside in Colorado Springs.
• The movie Independence Day makes reference to the destruction of NORAD.
• In the movie The Sum Of All Fears the Russian president asks a military advisor how many people live in Colorado Springs, as he weighs the ramifications in the use of nuclear weapons against the city. This highlights the strategic importance of the military-centered city.
• The film WarGames featured the NORAD facility quite prominently, even though only exterior shots were actually filmed on location.
• The film The Prestige includes Colorado Springs as the home of inventor Nikola Tesla, played by David Bowie. Also includes a facade of The Cliff House at Pikes Peak.

Trivia

• Lon Chaney was born in Colorado Springs on April 1, 1883. The Lon Chaney Theatre is named for him.
• Cassandra Peterson (also known as Elvira, Mistress of the Night) attended General William J. Palmer High School in downtown Colorado Springs. She graduated in the class of 1969.
• Aerosmith bassist Tom Hamilton was born in Colorado Springs.
• Leeann Tweeden worked briefly as a waitress at a local Hooters in the 1991-1992 timeframe.
• Bobby Unser was born in Colorado Springs on February 20, 1934.
• Actors Michael Boatman and Chase Masterson are from Colorado Springs.
• Serbian-born American physicist Nikola Tesla built a laboratory in Colorado Springs in 1899 for his experiments in the wireless transmission of electrical power. Reportedly he shot lightning from his lab back into the sky during a lightning storm. The site of the lab is now a residential area. The address is the intersection of Foote and Kiowa streets.
• Professional kickboxer, wrestler and actor Bob "The Beast" Sapp was born in Colorado Springs and attended Mitchel High School.
• WWE Superstar Bobby Lashley is from Colorado Springs.
• Kelsey Grammer 's sister was murdered after leaving a Red Lobster in Colorado Springs, Colorado.
• Many locals believe that if World War III started that Colorado Springs would be one of, if not the first, cities destroyed. This is based on primary target information, the large military presence of vital importance to the national military infastructure (USNORTHCOM, AFSPC, NORAD and Schriever AFB operations), the presence of a large contingent of up and coming Air Force officers at the United States Air Force Academy, and the acknowledged military practice of not striking a country's leadership (Washington, DC) so that there is someone to negotiate a surrender with.
• The concept of water fluoridation to prevent cavities was discovered by Dr. Frederick McKay, a local doctor in 1909.

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